Transaction Isolation
- standard defines four levels of transaction
- isolation in terms of three phenomena that must be prevented
- between concurrent transactions.
- These undesirable phenomena are:
+ The
SQL standard defines four levels of
+ transaction isolation in terms of three phenomena that must be
+ prevented between concurrent transactions. These undesirable
+ phenomena are:
- offers the read committed and serializable isolation levels.
+ offers the Read Committed and Serializable isolation levels.
In addition to table and row locks, page-level share/exclusive locks are
used to control read/write access to table pages in the shared buffer
pool. These locks are released immediately after a tuple is fetched or
- updated. Application writers normally need not be concerned with
+ updated. Application developers normally need not be concerned with
page-level locks, but we mention them for completeness.
Deadlocks
- Use of explicit locking can cause deadlocks, wherein
- two (or more) transactions each hold locks that the other wants.
- For example, if transaction 1 acquires an exclusive lock on table A
- and then tries to acquire an exclusive lock on table B, while transaction
- 2 has already exclusive-locked table B and now wants an exclusive lock
- on table A, then neither one can proceed.
-
PostgreSQL automatically detects deadlock
- situations and resolves them by aborting one of the transactions
- involved, allowing the other(s) to complete. (Exactly which transaction
- will be aborted is difficult to predict and should not be relied on.)
+ The use of explicit locking can increase the likelyhood of
+ deadlocks, wherein two (or more) transactions each
+ hold locks that the other wants. For example, if transaction 1
+ acquires an exclusive lock on table A and then tries to acquire
+ an exclusive lock on table B, while transaction 2 has already
+ exclusive-locked table B and now wants an exclusive lock on table
+ A, then neither one can proceed.
+
PostgreSQL automatically detects
+ deadlock situations and resolves them by aborting one of the
+ transactions involved, allowing the other(s) to complete.
+ (Exactly which transaction will be aborted is difficult to
+ predict and should not be relied on.)
- The best defense against deadlocks is generally to avoid them by being
- certain that all applications using a database acquire locks on multiple
- objects in a consistent order. One should also ensure that the first
- lock acquired on an object in a transaction is the highest mode that
- will be needed for that object. If it is not feasible to verify this
- in advance, then deadlocks may be handled on-the-fly by retrying
+ Note that deadlocks can also occur as the result of row-level
+ locks (and thus, they can occur even if explicit locking is not
+ used). Consider the case in which there are two concurrent
+ transactions modifying a table. The first transaction executes:
+
+
+UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100.00 WHERE acctnum = 11111;
+
+
+ This acquires a row-level lock on the row with the specified
+ account number. Then, the second transaction executes:
+
+
+UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100.00 WHERE acctnum = 22222;
+UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100.00 WHERE acctnum = 11111;
+
+
+ The first UPDATE statement successfully
+ acquires a row-level lock on the specified row, so it succeeds in
+ updating that row. However, the second UPDATE
+ statement finds that the row it is attempting to update has
+ already been locked, so it waits for the transaction that
+ acquired the lock to complete. Transaction two is now waiting on
+ transaction one to complete before it continues execution. Now,
+ transaction one executes:
+
+
+UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100.00 WHERE acctnum = 22222;
+
+
+ Transaction one attempts to acquire a row-level lock on the
+ specified row, but it cannot: transaction two already holds such
+ a lock. So it waits for transaction two to complete. Thus,
+ transaction one is blocked on transaction two, and transaction
+ two is blocked on transaction one: a deadlock
+ condition.
PostgreSQL will detect this
+ situation and abort one of the transactions.
+
+
+ The best defense against deadlocks is generally to avoid them by
+ being certain that all applications using a database acquire
+ locks on multiple objects in a consistent order. That was the
+ reason for the previous deadlock example: if both transactions
+ had updated the rows in the same order, no deadlock would have
+ occurred. One should also ensure that the first lock acquired on
+ an object in a transaction is the highest mode that will be
+ needed for that object. If it is not feasible to verify this in
+ advance, then deadlocks may be handled on-the-fly by retrying
transactions that are aborted due to deadlock.
- In short, B-tree indexes are the recommended index type for concurrent
- applications.
-
+ In short, B-tree indexes offer the best performance for concurrent
+ applications; since they also have more features than hash
+ indexes, they are the recommended index type for concurrent
+ applications that need to index scalar data. When dealing with
+ non-scalar data, B-trees obviously cannot be used; in that
+ situation, application developers should be aware of the
+ relatively poor concurrent performance of GiST and R-tree
+ indexes.
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